Digera muricata (L.) Mart.(False Amaranth)

Digera muricata (L.) Mart.

False Amaranth !!

BOTANICAL NAME: Digera muricata (L.) Mart.

FAMILY NAME: Amaranthceae

SYNONYMOUS NAMES: Achyranthes alternifolia L.
Achyranthes muricata L.
Digera alternifolia (L.) Aschers.
Digera arvensis Forssk.

COMMON NAME(s): Lesua in Hindi

PART USED: Fruits, Whole Plant.

HABITAT: cultivation and waste places.

DISTRIBUTION:Widespread in southern Asia from tropical Arabia and the Yemen to Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, Malaysia and Indonesia. Also in S., C. and E. tropical Africa and Madagascar. Everywhere as a weed of cultivation and waste places, and occurring as such in Pakistan up to an altitude of at least 1500 m.

DESCRIPTION:>>Annual herb, (15-) 20-50 (-70) cm, simple or with ascending branches from near the base; stem and branches glabrous or very sparingly pilose, with pale ridges.

>>Leaf-blade narrowly linear to broadly ovate or rarely subrotund, (12-) 20-60 (-90) x (2-) 6-30 (-50) mm, glabrous or the petiole and principal veins of the lower surface of the leaf spreading-hairy, acute or acuminate at the apex, longly or (in broader-leaved forms) rapidly narrowed to the base; petiole slender, in the lower leaves up to c. 5 cm, shortening in the upper leaves.

>>Flowers glabrous, white tinged with pink to carmine or red, usually becoming greenish-white in fruit, in long and slender or shorter and denser axillary racemes, long-pedunculate, up to c. 30 cm long, laxer below; peduncles slender, the lower up to c. 14 cm in length, both they and the inflorescence axis glabrous or sparingly spreading-hairy; bracts persistent, deltoid-lanceolate, acuminate, 1-2.75 mm, glabrous, membranous with a green or brownish percurrent midrib, each subtending a very shortly pedunculate partial inflorescence of 3 flowers. Central flower fertile, the 2 membranous, navicular outer perianth segments c. 3-4.5 mm long, oval or oblong, 7-12-nerved (in Asia), acute; the 2-3 inner segments slightly shorter, more delicate, blunt or erose, 1-3-nerved, hyaline, with a darker central vitta; stamens sub-equalling or shorter than the style; style c. 1.5-4 mm, the 2 stigmas finally recurved. Lateral flowers appressed, 1-bracteolate, bracteoles similar in form to the bract, these flowers much reduced and increasingly so in the upper part of the spike (sometimes absent there), modified into accrescent, antler-shaped scales, these scales with the lateral lobes narrow (in Asia) to broad and wing-like.

>>Fruit subglobose, slightly compressed, 2-2.5 mm, bluntly keeled along each side, surmounted by a thick rim or a corona of short, firm processes furnished throughout with verrucae or ridges, style persistent.

FLOWERING SEASON: August-September.

PLANT CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTSAnalysis of various fractions of the D. muricata indicated the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, coumarins,
tannins, cardiac glycosides and anthraquinones.

USES & BENEFITS>In India, the young leaves and shoots of False Amaranth are made into curries, or the entire plant is boiled and seasoned.

>Though almost all of its parts are used in traditional systems of
medicines, leaves, roots and shoots are the most important parts which are used medicinally.

>wide numbers of phytochemical constituents have been isolated from the plant which possesses activities like antibacterial, antifungal, diuretic, laxative, Free radical scavengic activity, anthelmintic, and various other important medicinal properties.

>The crushed plant is used as mild astringent in bowel complaints.

>Flowers and seeds used in the treatment of urinary discharges.

SOURCES:>>>> http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=250064265

>>>>http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/False%20Amaranth.html

>>>>http://globalresearchonline.net/journalcontents/v20-1/19.pdf

>>>>http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/229563

>>>>http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/90613185/review-digera-muricata-l-mart-great-versatile-medicinal-plant

>>>>https://sites.google.com/site/efloraofindia/species/a---l/a/amaranthaceae/digera/digera-muricata

>>>>http://books.google.co.in/books?id=6jrlyOPfr24C&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=digera+muricata&source=bl&ots=DqxgqQSuV-&sig=XHoUQuHJd1qGLft6BteyjMV0fco&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cH9BVMnsC86NuATesoKIBw&sqi=2&ved=0CFoQ6AEwDA#v=onepage&q=digera%20muricata&f=false

Solanum Xanthocarpum(Yellow-Berried Nightshade)

Kantakari !!

BOTANICAL NAME: Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad.

FAMILY NAME: Solanaceae

COMMON NAME(s): Yellow-Berried Nightshade, Choti Katheri, Kantkari, Kateli

PART USED: Fruits, Whole Plant.

HABITAT: Wastelands, Roadside as well as Open lands.

DESCRIPTION: It is a very spiny diffused herb, with a height of up to 1.2 meters.

The young branches are densely covered with minute star-shaped hair, while the mature branches are zigzag, covered with yellow, sharp shining prickles and spread close to the ground.

The midribs and other nerves of the leaves have sharp yellow prickles and grow up to 10 cm in length.

The purple flowers, that are 2 cm long with five petals, can be seen in small bunches, sometimes opposite to the leaves.

Kantkari plant bears glabrous, globular drooping berries as fruits, yellow or pale in color, with green veins. The plant is cultivated throughout India.

The herb is also known as Kantakari and Nidigadhika in Sanskrit; Kateli, Katai and Ringani in Hindi; Kantakari in Bengali; Bhuiringani in Marwai; Bhoyaringani in Gujarati; Pinnamulaka, Nelamulaka and Vankuda in Telugu; Kandankattiri in Tamil and Malayalam; Bhejibegun and Ankranti in Oriya; Kandyali, Mahori and Warumba in Punjabi; and Rengnie, Bhat-khataya and Rangaini Janum in Bihar.

PLANT CHEMICAL: (+)- solanocarpine, carpesterol, solanocarpidine, potassium nitrate, fatty acid, diosgenin, sitosterol, isochlorogenic acid, neochronogenic acid, chronogenic acid, caffeic acid, solasodine, solasonine, solamargine, quercetin, apigenin, histamine, acetylcholine.

USES & BENEFITS:>>Kantkari is useful in treating worms, cold, hoarseness of voice, fever, dysuria, enlargement of the liver, muscular pain, spleen and stone in the urinary bladder.
>>Nasal administration of kantkari is beneficial in migraine, asthma and headache.
>>Its dried fruit is used in making cigarettes. The smoke from these cigarettes is held in the mouth cavity, to treat dental infections.
>>The juice of the berries is used in curing sore throat.
>>The fumigation of kantakari is helpful in piles.
>>The herb is made to a paste and applied on swollen and painful joints to reduce the pain and swelling in arthritis.
>>Roots and seeds are used as an expectorant in asthma, cough and pain in chest.
>>The decoction of the root is given with honey, to treat cough.
>>The root is ground to a paste and mixed with lemon to cure snake and scorpion bites.
>>Its stem, flowers and fruits, being bitter and carminative, are used for relieving burning sensation in the feet.
>>Kantakari fruits also facilitate seminal ejaculation, alleviate worms, itching, and fever and reduce fats.
>>The fruit works as an aphrodisiac in males.
>>Its seeds are helpful for treating irregular menstruation and dysmenorrheal in females.
>>The herb is beneficial in the treatment of cardiac diseases associated with edema, since it is a stimulant to the heart and a blood purifier.

CAUTION: Kantkari should not be taken during pregnancy.

SOURCES:>>>>>>http://www.alwaysayurveda.com/solanum-xanthocarpum/

>>>>>>http://saspublisher.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/SAJP32-146-149.pdf

>>>>>>http://www.himalayawellness.com/herbfinder/solanum-xanthocarpum.htm

>>>>>>http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/10295/1/JSIR%2069(10)%20732-740.pdf

>>>>>>http://www.motherherbs.com/solanum-xanthocarpum.html

>>>>>>http://www.iloveindia.com/indian-herbs/solanum-xanthocarpum.html

>>>>>>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-fruit_nightshade

Lantana camara L. (SHRUB VERBENA)

Lantana camara L.

BOTANICAL NAMES: Lantana camara L.

FAMILY: Verbenaceae

SYNONYMOUS NAMES : Lantana aculeata , Lantana tiliifolia, Camara vulgaris, Lantana scabrida

COMMON NAMES: big sage, wild sage, red sage, white sage, tickberry, Yellow sage, shrub verbena, Common lantana,

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Lantana camara is a significant weed of which there are some 650 varieties in over 60 countries. It is established and expanding in many regions of the world, often as a result of clearing of forest for timber or agriculture. It impacts severely on agriculture as well as on natural ecosystems. The plants can grow individually in clumps or as dense thickets, crowding out more desirable species. In disturbed native forests it can become the dominant understorey species, disrupting succession and decreasing biodiversity. At some sites, infestations have been so persistent that they have completely stalled the regeneration of rainforest for three decades. Its allelopathic qualities can reduce vigour of nearby plant species and reduce productivity in orchards. Lantana camara has been the focus of biological control attempts for a century, yet still poses major problems in many regions.

FEATURES:Lantana is extremely easy to grow requiring little attention and is seldom bothered by pests or disease. It has low water requirements and can be used in xeriscapes and can handle the heat growing in containers and hanging baskets under sunny conditions. Lantana is a favorite species for butterflies and non-invasive lantanas should be a part of any butterfly garden.
Another lantana species that is also a popular garden plant is the weeping or trailing lantana Lantana montevidensis which is low growing trailing species that is particularly nice for hanging containers and groundcover.

DISTRIBUTION: Naturalized in approximately 60 countries or island groups between 35 N and 35 S latitudes. Occurs widely in the Asia-Pacific region, Australia, New Zealand, Central and South America, West Indies and Africa. The plant is still widening its range.

HABITAT: The diverse and broad geographic distribution of lantana is a reflection of its wide ecological tolerance. It occurs in diverse habitats and on a variety of soil types. Lantana generally grows best in open, un-shaded conditions such as wastelands, the edges of rain forests, on beachfronts, in agricultural areas, grasslands, riparian zones, scrub/shrub lands, urban areas, wetlands and forests recovering from fire or logging. Roadsides, railway tracks and canal banks are favored by the species. It doesn't grow at ambient o temperatures below 5 C. The plant is found at altitudes from sea level to 2,000 m and can thrive very well under rainfall ranging from 750 to 5000 mm per annum. Lantana does not invade intact rain forests, but is found on their margins. Where natural forests have been disturbed through logging creating gaps, Lantana encroaches in the gaps. Further logging aggravates the condition and allows lantana to spread or become thicker in its growth. It cannot survive under dense, intact canopies of taller native forest species. The plant is susceptible to frosts and low temperatures, saline soils, boggy or hydromorphic soils, low rainfall, coralline soils with poor water-holding capacities and high incidence of tropical hurricanes.

BIOLOGY:Lantana camara is a low, erect or subscandent, vigorous shrub which can grow to 2 - 4 meters in height.

The leaf is ovate or ovate oblong, 2 - 10 cm long and 2 - 6 cm wide, arranged in opposite pairs. Leaves are bright green, rough, finely hairy, with serrate margins and emit a pungent odour when crushed.

The stem in cultivated varieties is often non- thorny and in weedy varieties with recurved prickles. It is woody, square in cross section, hairy when young, cylindrical and up to 15 cm thick as it grows older. Lantana is able to climb to 15 m with the support of other vegetation.

Flower heads contain 20 - 40 flowers, usually 2.5 cm across; the
colour varies from white, cream or yellow to orange pink, purple and red. Flowering occurs between August and March, or all year round if adequate moisture and light are available.

Pollinators include lepidopteran species and thrips.

The fruit is a greenish blue-black colour, 5 - 7 mm in diameter, drupaceous, shining, with two nutlets; seed setting takes place between September to May with 1 - 20 seeds on each flower head.
Mature plants produce up to 12,000 seeds annually. Seed germination occurs when sufficient moisture is present; germination is reduced by low light conditions.

The root system is very strong with a main taproot and a mat of many shallow side roots.

Fruit dispersal is through frugivorous birds, fox and rodents. Germination rate of fresh seed is generally low, but the germinability gets improved when the seed passes through the digestive system of birds and animals. High light intensity and soil temperature will stimulate germination of seeds which means that clearing of forest areas, inappropriate burning and other disturbances will help spread of the weed. Seeds are capable of surviving the hottest fires.

USES: 

In warm winter zones use lantana and its cultivars in mixed beds and borders. Lantana will add vibrant long-lasting color to shrub groupings. This is a fast growing shrub that is quick to flower so gardeners in cold climates can enjoy this tropical plant as an annual. Lantana tolerates salt spray and can be used in beach plantings. Lantana makes an excellent container plant and several smaller sized cultivars are offered just for this use.
There are more than a 100 Lantana species and many of these are showing up in garden centers in one form or another. If you live in Zone 8-12 look for lantana varieties and hybrids at your garden center that are better behaved than the species - avoid digging naturalized lantana from the wild for your garden to avoid furthering its spread. Choose selected garden varieties instead.

Medicinal:---- Studies conducted in India have found that Lantana leaves can display antimicrobial, fungicidal and insecticidal properties. L. camara has also been used in traditional herbal medicines for treating a variety of ailments, including cancer, skin itches, leprosey, rabies, chicken pox, measles, asthma and ulcers.

There are also some scientific studies which have shown beneficial effects of L .camara, such as one by R. Satish which found that an extract from the plant reduced ulcer development in rats. Extracts from the plant have also been used to treat respiratory infections in Brazil.

Ornamental:-------- L. camara has been grown specifically for use as an ornamental plant since Dutch explorers first brought it to Europe from the New World. Its ability to last for a relatively long time without water and that it does not have many pests or diseases which affect it have contributed to it becoming a common ornamental plant. L. camara also attracts butterflies and birds and so is frequently used in Florida's butterfly gardens.

Garden Uses:-------- Annual bedding plant. Containers. Houseplant.

INVASIVE SPECIES:L. camara is considered a weed in large areas of the Paleotropics where it has established itself. In agricultural areas or secondary forests it can become the dominant understorey shrub, crowding out other native species and reducing biodiversity. The formation of dense thickets of L. camara can significantly slow down the regeneration of forests by preventing the growth of new trees.

Although L. camara is itself quite resistant to fire, it can change fire patterns in a forest ecosystem by altering the fuel load to cause a buildup of forest fuel which increases the risk of fires spreading to the canopy. This can be particularly destructive in dry, arid areas where fire can spread quickly and lead to the loss of large areas of natural ecosystem.

L. camara reduces the productivity in pasture through the formation of dense thickets which reduce growth of crops as well as make harvesting more difficult. There are also secondary impacts, including the finding that mosquitos which transmit malaria and tsetse flies in Africa shelter within the bushes of L. camara.

There are many reasons why L. camara has been so successful as an invasive species, however the primary factors which have allowed it to establish itself are;

Wide dispersal range made possible by birds and other animals which eat the berries
(1)Less prone to being eaten by animals due to toxicity
(2)Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions
(3)Increase in logging and habitat modification which has been beneficial to L. camara as it prefers disturbed habitats
(4)Production of toxic chemicals which inhibit competing plant species
(5) Extremely high seed production (12,000 seeds from each plant per year)

TOXICITY:L. camara is known to be toxic to livestock such as cattle, sheep, horses, dogs and goats.[29][30] The active substances causing toxicity in grazing animals is pentacyclic triterpenoids which results in liver damage and photosensitivy. L. camara also excretes chemicals (allelopathy) which reduce the growth of surrounding plants by inhibiting germination and root elongation.

The toxicity of L. camara to humans is undetermined, with several studies suggesting that ingesting berries can be toxic to humans, such as a study by O P Sharma which states "Green unripe fruits of the plant are toxic to humans".However other studies have found evidence which suggests that ingesion of L. camara fruit poses no risk to humans and are in fact edible when ripe.

PROBLEMS:No serious insect or disease problems. Watch for whiteflies and spider mites, particularly on overwintering plants.

MANAGEMENT AND CONTROLS:Effective management of invasive L. camara in the long term will require a reduction in activities which create degraded habitats. Maintaining functioning (healthy) ecosystems is key to preventing invasive species from establishing themselves and outcompeting native fauna and flora.

Biological:-----Insects and other biocontrol agents have been implemented with varying degrees of success in an attempt to control L. camara. It was the first weed ever subjected to biological control, however none of the programmes have been successful despite 36 control agents being used across 33 regions.

The lack of success using biological control in this case is most likely due to the many hybrid forms of L. camara as well as the large genetic diversity which make it difficult for the control agents to effectively target all plants.

Mechanical:----Mechanical control of L. camara involves physically removing the plants. Physical removal can be effective but is labour-intensive and expensive, therefore removal is usually only appropriate in small areas. Another method of mechanical control is to use fire treatment followed by revegetation with native species.

Chemical:---Using herbicides to manage L. camara is very effective but also expensive (prohibiting its use in many poorer countries where L. camara is well established). The most effective way of chemically treating plant species is to first mow the area then spray the area with a herbicide (weed-killer).

GENERAL IMPACTS:Lantana is now a major weed in many regions of the Palaeotropics where it invades natural and agricultural ecosystems (Thomas and Ellison 1999). The plants can grow individually in clumps or as dense thickets, crowding out more desirable species. In disturbed native forests it can become the dominant understorey species, disrupting succession and decreasing biodiversity. As the density of lantana in forest increases species richness decreases (Fensham et al. 1994, in Day et al. 2003). Its allelopathic qualities can reduce vigour of plant species nearby and reduced productivity in orchards (Holm et al. 1991, in Day et al. 2003). At some sites, lantana infestations have been so persistent that they have completely stalled the regeneration of rainforest for three decades (Lamb 1991, in Day et al. 2003). Such is its impact that, for example, in south-east Queensland lantana was ranked as the most significant weed of non-agricultural areas (Batianoff and Butler 2002, in Day et al. 2003). Lantana competition may have caused the extinction of the shrub Linum cratericola Eliasson (Linaceae), and is a major threat to other endangered plants in the Galapagos Archipelago (Mauchamp et al. 1998, in Day et al. 2003). The replacement of native pastures by lantana is threatening the habitat of the sable antelope in Kenya (Greathead 1971b, in Day et al. 2003).
Lantana can greatly alter fire regimes in natural systems (Humphries and Stanton 1992, in Day et al. 2003). A research team from The School for Field Studies (SFS) Center for Rainforest Studies in North Queensland, Australia’s Wet Tropics, found that L. camara increases fire risk in dry rainforest by altering fuel loads. Through a suite of field and laboratory research methods, the authors concluded that L. camara is less ignitable than native rainforest species but creates a more continuous layer of ‘ladder’ fuels, which may allow fire to reach the forest canopy. They suggest that management of this species in fire susceptible ecosystems should include targeted physical removal to reduce fuel loads. (Berry et al 2011).

It can affect agriculture in a number of ways. In plantations in south-east Asia and the Pacific Island communities it can reduce productivity and interfere with harvesting. It may affect economic viability of crops such as coffee, oil palm, coconuts and cotton (Holm et al. 1977, in Thomas and Ellison 1999). In Queensland, loss of pasture is the greatest single cost of lantana invasion in grazing areas (A$3m per year at 1985 values) (Culvenor 1985, in Day et al. 2003). In dense stands of lantana, the capacity of the soil to absorb rain is lower than under good grass cover (Cilliers 1983, in Day et al. 2003). This could potentially increase the amount of run-off and the subsequent risk of soil erosion in areas infested with lantana. Lantana has been implicated in the poisoning of a number of animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats (Sharma et al. 1988, in Day et al. 2003) (its leaves and seeds contain triterpenoids, which cause poisoning and photosensitivity). Poisoning mainly occurs in newly introduced young animals without access to other fodder (Everist 1974, Yadava and Verma 1978; Sharma 1994, in Day et al. 2003).

Lantana has many secondary impacts, especially in many tropical countries where it can harbour several serious pests. Malarial mosquitoes in India (Gujral and Vasudevan 1983 in Day et al. 2003) and tsetse flies in Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya shelter in bushes and are the cause of serious health problems (Greathead 1968, Katabazi 1983, Okoth and Kapaata 1987, Mbulamberi 1990 in Day et al. 2003).

SOURCES:>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantana_camara

>> http://www.floridata.com/ref/l/lant_c.cfm

>> http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=a523

>> http://www.fao.org/forestry/13375-06ba52ce294a4e15f8264c42027052db0.pdf

>> http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=56

>> http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/plants/weeds-pest-animals-ants/weeds/a-z-listing-of-weeds/photo-guide-to-weeds/lantana

>> http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pests-weeds/weeds/profiles/lantana

>> http://ntbg.org/plants/plant_details.php?plantid=6862

>>http://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/lantana-camara/

Clitoria ternatea L. (BUTTERFLY PEA)

Clitoria ternatea L.

BUTTERFLY PEA !!
BOTANICAL NAMES: Clitoria ternatea L.

FAMILY: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) 

SUB FAMILY: Faboideae

TRIBE: Phaseoleae

SUB TRIBE: Clitoriinae.

Also placed in: Papilionaceae

COMMON NAMES : Butterfly-pea, Blue-pea, Cordofan-pea, Butterfly Bean, Clitoria, Aparajita, Butterfly Pea, Conch flower, Gokarni, Girikarnika, Koyal, Dintena

SYNONYMOUS NAMES : Clitoria albiflora Mattei
Clitoria bracteata Poir.
Clitoria mearnsii De Wild.
Clitoria tanganicensis Micheli
Clitoria zanzibarensis Vatke

ECOLOGY and DISTRIBUTION:Clitoria ternatea may have originated from Latin America or Asia but is now naturalized in all the semi-arid and sub-humid tropics of Asia, Africa and Australia (Staples, 1992). A fast summer-growing legume, it can cover the soil within no more than 30-40 days after sowing and yield mature pods within 110 to 150 days. It is naturally found in grassland, open woodland, bush, riverine vegetation, and disturbed places.

Clitoria ternatea grows within 20°N and 24°S and from sea level up to an altitude of 1600-1800 m, and in equatorial Africa up to 2000 m (FAO, 2012; Ecocrop, 2012; Cook et al., 2005, Staples, 1992). Butterfly pea does better where average temperature is about 19-28°C and where annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 1500 mm. However, it tolerates temperatures as low as 15°C and even some frost as it may regrow from the stems or from the plant base, provided it is already woody when the frosting occurs. It does well under irrigation but has only a low tolerance of flooding or waterlogging. It has also some drought tolerance and can grow in places where rainfall is as low as 400-500 mm. It can survive a 5-6 month drought in the drier tropics. Clitoria ternatea can grow on a wide range of soils but is particularly adapted to shallow, heavy clay and sodic soils (pH 5.5-8.9). It thrives in full sunlight but can also grow under light shade in rubber and coconut plantations (FAO, 2012; Ecocrop, 2012; Cook et al., 2005, Staples, 1992.

BIOLOGY DESCRIPTION>>C. ternatea is a vigorous, strongly persistent, herbaceous perennial legume; stems fine twining, sparsely pubescent, suberect at base, 0.5-3 m long.

>>Leaves pinnate with 5 or 7 leaflets; petioles 1.5-3 cm long; stipules persistent, narrowly triangular, 1-6 mm long, subulate, prominently 3-nerved; rachis 1-7 cm long; stipels filiform, to 2 mm long; leaflets elliptic, ovate or nearly orbicular, 1.5-5 cm long, 0.3-3 cm wide, with apex acute or rounded, often notched, and base cuneate or rounded, both surfaces sparsely appressed pubescent.

>>Flowers axillary, single or paired; colour ranges from white, mauve, light blue to dark blue; pedicles 4-9 mm long, twisted through 180º so that the standard is inverted. Bracteoles persistent, broadly ovate or rounded, 4-12 mm long. Calyx 1.7-2.2 cm long with a few fine hairs; tube campanulate, 0.8-1.2 cm long; lobes triangular or oblong, 0.7-1 cm long, acute or acuminate. Standard obovate , funnel-shaped, 2-5.5 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, notched or rounded at apex, blue with a pale yellow base, or entirely white, a few fine hairs at apex.

>>Pods linear-oblong, flattened, 4-13 cm long, 0.8-1.2 cm wide, with margins thickened, and style persistent, sparsely pubescent when mature, pale brown, dehiscent when dry. Seeds 8-11/pod, oblong , somewhat flattened, 4.5-7 mm long, 3-4 mm wide, olive brown to almost black, shiny, often mottled, minutely pitted; 23,000 seeds/kg.

>>Morphology can vary with different growing conditions. Cv. Milgarra, which has no significant distinguishing morphological characters, is normally towards the upper end of the size ranges of descriptions in the taxonomic literature.

USES>>Clitoria Ternatea is one of four herbs traditionally used as Shanka Pushpi, an Ayurvedic medicine used to promote neurological health. It shows promise in animal models for its memory enhancing effects, and has a wide spectrum of neurological benefits (anti-depression, anxiolytic, anti-pyretic) yet for these latter claims preliminary evidence suggests it isn't overly potent.

>>Some other preliminary evidence suggests that it might be healthy for the liver and circulating lipoproteins, as well as a possible benefit diabetics by inhibiting glucose uptake from the diet. However, these claims are much too early to guess their practical relevance on.

>>Toxicological studies on rodents and historical usage (partially confounded with the three other herbs) suggest that Clitoria Ternatea is safe, but limited evidence exists currently.

>>This plant’s root is specially used for leucoderma. It is also considered as Visahara.

>>External uses:
It alleviates swelling and pain. It has haemostatic action hence it is ued in piles specially bleeding piles. Piles are cleaned with the decoction and the paste of whole plant is applied over it. Leaf juice is used as nasal drops in headache. Oil boiled with dhamasa is used for massage in rheumatoi4 arthritis..
Decoction is used for gargling in stomatitis and for cleaning wounds. It prevents pus formation.

>>Internal uses:
1.) Nervous system : It has a tranquillizing effect on the brain hence it is used in symptoms like syncope, vertigo and brain weakness.

2.)Digestive system : It is an antiemetic. antidypsetic. mild-laxative and cholagogue Therefore it is used in emesis. dyspepsia, constipation jaundice and piles. Kapha and pitta work together in the lower part of the stomach.It is used in healing ulcers of pylorus duodenum etc.

3.)Circulatory system : Being haemostatic and blood purifier, it is useful in haemorrhagic disorders and vatarakta. Hot infusion of dhamasa is given to prevent small pox.

4.)Respiratory system : It is used in common cold, cough, asthma as it acts as an expectorant and reduces the irritation of respiratory organs. Besides this, whole plant is used for smoking. Decoction is used for gargling in throat manifestations

5.) Mansavaha srotas : Dhamasa is applied over neck stiffness.

6.)Urinary system : It increases urination. Decoction is used in dysuria.

7.)Reproductive system : Being spermatogenic, it is given in semen debility

>>Skin : It can be used in various skin disorders by.
Temperature : Febrifuge and refrigerant by bitter and cold properties. Bitter taste is the best for fever. It can be used for cooling effect. It alleviates symptoms like vomiting, thirst and burning sensation etc. which are caused by vata and kapha in fever.
Satmikaran : It increases the physical strength and weight by unctuous and sweet

ECOLOGY>>Soil requirements:: Adapted to a wide range of soil types (from sands to heavy clays) of moderate fertility but is extremely well adapted to heavy clay alkaline soils, and especially on clay soils which are too shallow for leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala ). Adapted to pH 4.5-8.7 but prefers medium to high pH . Some suggested tolerance to salinity, but lower than, for example, siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum ).

>>Moisture:: Requires summer rainfall of 500 mm over 3 months but grows best between 700-1,500mm AAR. Drought tolerant and will survive in years which have only 400 mm rainfall and a dry season of 5-6 months or longer even if heavily grazed. Some tolerance of short term flooding but not prolonged inundation or waterlogging .

>>Temperature:: Warm (wet) season growth up to 2,000 m in equatorial Africa and to latitude 24ºS. Tolerates average daily temperatures down to 15ºC but not suited to districts with severe or frequent frosts. Production is limited more by low average daily temperatures or a short growing season than by light or even heavy frosts. Will regrow from stems following light frost or from the plant base after heavy frost. Essential to establish mature woody plants prior to frost, some of which will survive, depending on severity of the frost.

>>Light:: Normally grown in full sunlight but moderately shade-tolerant, being used as a cover crop in coconut plantations and under rubber.

>>Reproductive development:: Flowers can develop in 4-6 weeks after sowing and continue to flower while temperature and moisture are adequate. Flowering can occur throughout the year given sufficient soil moisture and frost-free conditions. Of 58 accessions planted in January at 19ºS, first flowering occurred 7-11 weeks after sowing. Subsequent flowering events overlapped pod set and fill. Predominantly self-fertile but with some out-crossing.

>>Defoliation:: Tolerant of heavy rotational grazing, but not constant heavy defoliation. Frequent trampling by cattle will damage the stems. Growing tips and axils of stems must be left to develop new leaves. Because of its high palatability it is better managed as short-term pasture under rotational grazing. Optimum cutting interval of 56 days at heights of 5 or 10 cm for total yield of DM and protein.
It has persisted for 14 years and spread under heavy dry season grazing in infertile vertisols in northwestern Queensland, Australia. For persistence, must be allowed to set seed. In protein bank, cattle should be allowed to graze for only 2-3 hours each day.

>>Fire:: Temperature and duration of the fire (governed by fuel load, air temperature, soil moisture and wind) will largely decide survival of butterfly pea after fire. A hot fire has the ability to kill plants completely. Cooler fires may kill some stems, or all above ground material, in which case the plant may reshoot from surviving stems or from the plant base. Fire destroys litter, reduces cover and opens the canopy to light, which can increase the germination and establishment of both weeds and butterfly pea seedlings.

AGRONOMYGuidelines for the establishment and management of sown pastures.

>>Establishment:
Best results are achieved by planting into soil moisture (2-6 cm), in narrow rows (15-50 cm apart) at about 2-4 kg/ha for long-term pastures and about 6 kg/ha for short-term pastures to achieve plant densities of 5-10 plants/m². Excellent results can be achieved when sown as a crop using conventional planters and presswheels to achieve good soil/seed contact.
For optimum yield as a green manure crop, use a seeding rate of 12 kg/ha. As a component of grass-legume pastures, can also be planted behind a blade plough or using a "crocodile seeder ". Soil temperatures between 16 and 36ºC are required for good establishment. Weed competition will delay establishment but, once established, Clitoria can smother most weeds.
Seed should be inoculated with Tropical Group M rhizobium. Mechanically scarify seed with a high hard seed content (>30%) when soil conditions favour immediate germination, or use unscarified seed with a high hard seed percentage when staggered germination is desired, eg. planting behind a blade plough or when using a crocodile planter. Butterfly pea establishment is considered a much lower risk on heavy textured soils because of the large seed size and greater weed tolerance than alternatives such as leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala ). Use of pre-emergent herbicide such as imazethapyr, 2-8 weeks prior to sowing is desirable to achieve successful control of weeds during establishment in old cropping areas.

>>Fertiliser:
Not normally used when sown on suitable soils, but P and S may be required on infertile soils.

>>Compatibility (with other species):
Rapid climbing growth suggests that Clitoria will combine better with tall and tussock grasses than with creeping ones.
It has been used as a leguminous mulch within elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum ) to improve the grass protein levels. When grown together, Clitoria increased total forage protein content and total DM without reducing yield of the grass .
Sown as a pure stand as short-term (2-3 year) rotation with crops.

COMPANION SPECIES>>Grasses: Has been grown succesfully with elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum ), and forage sorghums (Sorghum bicolor) and millets as well as Panicum maximum . Also sown with pangola (Digitaria eriantha ) as a pasture , and Andropogon gayanus and Dichanthium aristatum . It has been grown successfully with Cenchrus ciliarus and Chloris gayana as a revegetation species on coal mines.

>>Pests and diseases: Fungal leaf diseases (e.g. Cercospora, Colletotrichum, Odium and Rhizoctonia) have been recorded in cool wet weather but rarely as a serious problem. Minor susceptibility to various leaf-eating caterpillars and grasshoppers. Most lines (variably) susceptible to root nematode Meloidgyne incognita.

>>Ability to spread
Will not spread in grazed pastures. Commonly C. ternatea pastures are sown as pure legume pastures and are progressively invaded by vigorous pasture grasses as soil-N levels build up.

>>Weed potential
Natural spread is unlikely as the plants are very palatable and the seedlings do not compete well with existing vegetation.

FEEDING VALUE>>Nutritive value: Excellent nutritive value with high protein and digestibility (up to 80%) with nitrogen concentrations of 3.0% N for leaf and 1.5% N for whole plant. Leaf had consistently low ADF (c. 20%) and high N (c. 4%) in Queensland.

>>Palatability/acceptability: Very palatable thus requiring grazing management to persist.

>>Toxicity: Seeds are a strong purgative.

PRODUCTION POTENCIAL>>Dry matter
1-15 t/ha/yr DM; cv Milgarra yielded 4,200 kg/ha DM after 4 month's growth. Under dryland conditions in the sub-humid tropics, ley pastures of cv. Milgarra in cropping systems generally produce 2-6 t/ha/year DM.

>>Animal production
Liveweight gains of 0.7-1.3 kg/ha/day recorded for steers grazing pure Clitoria pastures in central Queensland, Australia. In northern Australia, cattle grazing para grass (Brachiaria mutica ) and C. ternatea pasture gained 0.68 kg/head/day, a higher gain than for stylo (Stylosanthes) or centro (Centrosema ) mixtures with para grass .

>>Genetics/breeding
Diploid 2n = 16; largely self-fertile (eg. cv. Milgarra) but some accessions must be at least partially outcrossing as segregating genotypes have been identified within natural populations. Homozygous blue and white and heterozygous blue-flowering genotypes have been identified. Emasculation is easily performed with tweezers to make crosses, however no breeding programs have been conducted.
In Australia, the morphological and agronomic variation of 58 accessions of C. ternatea have been described (Reid and Sinclair 1980) and the adaptation and agronomy of introductions in northern Australia have been reported.
Accessions have been evaluated for adaptation to cooler, sub-tropical environments and for persistence under grazing.

>>Seed production
Hand harvest where economical, but can achieve 700 kg/ha by mechanical harvesting methods (direct-heading). Irregular pod maturity affects best time of harvest as some pods will have shattered while flowers and green pods are still present.

HERBICIDE EFFECTSHerbicides such as bentazone (post-emergence) and imazethapyr (post-planting) are commonly used to control weeds during early establishment in northern Australia. Invading grasses may also be controlled using selective grass killers such as fluazifop or sethoxydim.

STRENGHTS>Easy to establish, including on heavy clays and surface-crusting soils.
>Palatable and high nutritional value.
>Good for fertility restoration.
>High forage and seed production.
>Moderate tolerance of salinity and sodicity .

LIMITATIONS>Requires moderate fertility soils.
>Requires careful grazing management for persistence.
>Generally requires replanting every 5-8 years due to increasing dominance of invading grasses.

RESOURCES>> http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Clitoria_ternatea.htm

>>http://www.feedipedia.org/node/318

>>http://www.thegardenhelper.com/clitoria.htm

>>http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/528/

>>http://www.indianmedicinalplants.info/d3/Clitoria-ternatea(Aparajita).html

>>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitoria_ternatea

>>http://www.ayurvedicnaturalhomeremedies.com/medicinal-benefits-of-clitoria-ternatea/

>>http://examine.com/supplements/Clitoria+ternatea/

Trianthema portulacastrum L. (DESERT HORSE PURSLANE)

Trianthema portulacastrum L. 

Desert Horse purslane !!
BOTANICAL NAMES: Trianthema portulacastrum L.

FAMILY: Aizoaceae (ice plant family)

COMMON NAMES : Horse purslane, carpet weed, Santhi, patharchatta

SYNONYMOUS NAMES : Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.,
                                          Trianthema monogyna Linn., 

                                           Portulaca toston Blanco,
                                           Portulaca axilliflora Blanco

ECOLOGY and DISTRIBUTION: 

T. portulacastrum is cosmopolitan, with no known centre of origin and widespread in Southeast Asia, tropical America and Africa. Common from sea level, in the sandy and muddy coastal zones, up to near 800 m. In India, both red and green biotypes grow best under partial shade and thrive in neutral to alkaline soils that are low in organic matter.

HABIT: 

Rather fleshy plant, prostrate to erect and very branched, developing in mats.

BIOLOGY: 

Horse purslane is an annual or perennial species. It propagates by seeds and by fragments of stem which propagate from cuttings very easily. Two biotypes of T. portulacastrum occur in India. Typical description refers to red biotypes that form larger plants and reddish stems with long internodes; and green and smaller type, with shorter internodes, flowers with green bracts and pods, and white sepals. The red type is more abundant, but the green one appears earlier in the season.

BOTANICAL DESCIPTION:>>Roots-Taproot.

>>Stem- Cylindrical, full, fleshy, finely pubescent on the face exposed to the light. Stems can achieve until 1 m of length. It is often tinged of purple. The ramifications are in the axils of the small leaves of every pair.

>>Leaves- Simple, opposite with petiole expanded at the base. Stipules interpetiolar surmounted of a great tooth in the middle. The pair of leaves is very unequal in size. The great one long from 2 to 4,5cm and wide from 1 to 3,5cm, is carried by a petiole from 1 to 2cm. Its lamina is elliptic to obovate, with the tip very broadly rounded, base acute and shortly decurrent on the upper part of the petiole. Margin is entire and slightly wavy. The small leaf is almost sessile, more or less with elliptic shape. Faces are hairless, except for the minutely papillate-denticulate margins.

>>Inflorescence- Solitary flowers, sessile, in the armpit of the small leaves and more or less inclusive in the petiolar sheath. Calyx with 5 sepals ovals to lanceolated. Corolla simple, with 5 white petals and pink-purple inside, lengths from 3 to 5mm, presenting a dorsal mucro sub apical. 15 - 20 stamens inserted at the top of the calyx tube.

>>Fruit- Capsule dehiscent, from 4 to 5mm in length, with a single awn at the tip, opening around the middle, containing 2 to 8 seeds.

>>Seeds- Kidney-shaped, in spiral ended by a beak, 2mm in diameter. The tegument is tuberculate, reddish, brown to black.

>>Seedling- Cotyledons elliptic lanceolated, petioled, of uneven size, a from 12 to 16mm in length and 3 to 4mm wide, the other one from 10 to 12mm in length and 2 to 3mm wide, hairless and fleshy.

First leaves are opposite, simple, presenting the peculiarity to have a small leaf in front of a big one, in alternation. The petiole is brief, expanded at the base. The lamina is elliptic rounded, hairless, fleshy. An interpetiolar stipule decorated in the middle of an expansion acuminated from the second pair of leaves.

NUISANCE : It occurs in cultivation fields, waste places, roadsides, lawns and gardens. Occasionally, it is found in perennial crops and pastures. It is common in India in upland rice and in vegetable farming’s.

DAIGNOSTIC FEATURES: 
>>Horse purslane is an annual fleshy plant, prostrate to weakly raised, with numerous basal ramifications. It can reach 30 in 50cm in height.

>>The stem is finely hairy on faces exposed to the light.Leaves are simple, entire but of uneven size (a great in front of a small one).

>>Twigs and flowers develop always in the base of the small one.

>>The lamina is ovate and fleshy.

>>Flowers are solitary, sessile and with star shape, white to pale pink and very small.

>>Fruits are small capsules; seeds kidney-shaped, brown to black.

WEED CONTROL:
-> Cultural- It may be difficult to control by tillage because of ready regrowth from cut stems.

-> Biological- Gibbago trianthemae, the causal agent of leaf spot on T. portulacastrum, was isolated from diseased plants collected in Texas, USA. Plants sprayed with conidia were killed within 9 days. In host-range studies, the fungus was pathogenic only to T. portulacastrum. This fungus may be a useful agent for the biological control of this species.

-> Chemical- Propanil at 2 kg ha-1 applied two weeks after rice emergence or application of 2_4-D at 500 g/ha or Almix at 4g/ha.

CONSTITUENTS:• Root contains a glucoside with saponin-like properties.
• Methanolic extract of leaves yielded carbohydrates, protein, volatile oils, glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids.

PROPERTIES:• Roots considered emmenagogue and cathartic; abortive in large doses.
• Pls utilized
Roots considered lithotriptic, diuretic, analgesic, stomachic, laxative and alterative.
• Roots are sweet when fresh. Others report it as bitter and nauseous.

PART USES:
>>Edibility 
• Eaten as a leafy vegetable.
• Good source of iron and calcium; an excellent source of phosphorus.

>>Folkloric 
• Roots used as emmenagogue in ammenorhea; abortive in large doses.
• Powdered roots with ginger is cathartic and irritant.
• Infusion used for constipation, jaundice, strangury, dropsy, asthma.
• Root applied to the eye to treat corneal itching, inflammation and decreasing vision.
• Herb decoction used as vermifuge and for rheumatism.
• Herb decoction used as vermifuge and for rheumatism. Also used as antidote for alcoholic poisoning.
• In Nigeria, leaves are considered diuretic; used for treatment of edema, strangury, and dropsy. Old leaves are used in treatment of gonorrhea.
• In the Gold Coast, plant applied as wound dressing or as poultice.
• In India, used for edema of the liver and spleen, uteralgia and cough. Plant is considered lithotriptic for the kidney and bladder. Also used as diuretic.

RESOURCES:
>>http://idao.cirad.fr/content/oscar/especes/t/trtpo/trtpo.html#Ecology and distribution

>> http://stuartxchange.com/Toston.html

>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trianthema_portulacastrum

>> http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0100-83582013000300011&script=sci_arttext

>> http://www.fireflyforest.com/flowers/2483/trianthema-portulacastrum-desert-horsepurslane/

>>http://database.prota.org/PROTAhtml/Trianthema%20portulacastrum_En.htm

>>http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Desert%20Horse%20Purslane.html

>> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3459455/

Malvastrum coromandelianum (FALSE MALLOW)

 Malvastrum coromandelianum 

FALSE MALLOW !!
BOTANICAL NAME: Malvastrum coromandelianum 

FAMILY: Malvaceae (Mallow family)

SYNONYMS: Malva coromandeliana, Malvastrum tricuspidatum, Malvastrum tricuspidatum A.Gray,Malva americana
Malva coromandeliana, Malvastrum scabrum, Sida fauriei, Malva lindheimeriana, Malva havanensis, Malvastrum coromandelianum,
Malva luzonica, Malvastrum tricuspidatum, Malva hirsuta, Malvastrum corchorifolium, Sida oahuensis, Malvastrum carpinifolium, Sida jamaicensis, Malvastrum americanum, Malvastrum lindheimerianum

COMMON NAME: False Mallow, Broom weed, Clock plant, Prickly malvastrum, Kharenti, Chandiri, Sannabindige gida

ECOLOGY: It is a common weed for roadsides, orchards, dump site. It is a drought resistant plant.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:
False Mallow is a strong-stemmed, woody-rooted herb, growing to 1 m tall. The plant is usually smaller, velvel-hairy with characteristic 4-rayed hairs. Herbs to 50 cm tall; stem with appressed stellate hairs.

>>Leaves 2-8 x 1-3 cm, ovate or lanceolate, unlobed or shallowly 3-lobed, broadly rounded to cuneate at base, margins dentate to nearly serrate, acute to acuminate at apex, 3-5-nerved at base, petioles 2-3 cm long, stellate-hairy; stipules 3-5 mm long, lanceolate, acuminate, early deciduous.Leaf stalks are 1.5-4 cm long.

>>Light yellow flowers occur singly in leaf axils.

>>Flower stalk is 5 mm long. Flowers are yellow, about 1.3 cm broad, with 5 petals. Petals are obovate, very shallowly asymmetrically lobed at the tip. Flowers occasionally paired or terminal. Flowers axillary, solitary, often clustered; pedicels slender, 5-8 mm long. Involucellar bracts shorter than calyx, 4-6 x 7-10 mm, lanceolate, acuminate, strigose-hairy. Calyx 4-6 mm long in flower, and 8-12 mm long in fruit; lobes 5, 3-4 x 2-4 mm, deltoid, acuminate, fused to the middle, hirsute. Corolla 1-1.5 cm in diam., widely campanulate, pale yellow; petals 6-8 x 4-5 mm, obliquely obovate, exceeding the calyx lobes. Staminal column 3-4 mm long, glabrous. Schizocarps 5-6 mm diameter, enclosed within the calyx; mericarps 10 -12, 3-4 x 3-4 mm, setose with a single conspicuous apical and two dorsal cusps.

>>Fruit is about 6 mm broad, seeds kidney-shaped, ripe carpel with a few stiff hairs and 2 stubby points on the convex side.

>>Flowering and fruiting: March-September


SOURCES:
#http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/False%20Mallow.html

# http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/246456

# http://publish.plantnet-project.org/project/plantinvasivekruger/collection/collection/synthese/details/MAVCO

# http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200013749

# http://plants.jstor.org/taxon/Malvastrum.coromandelianum

# http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?23314

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal [Indian Ginseng]

 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Poison Gooseberry - an Ayurvedic medicine !!
BOTANICAL NAME: Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

SYNONYMS: Physalis somnifera L., Withania kansuensis Kuang & A. M. Lu, Withania microphysalis Suess.

FAMILY: Solanceae (nightshade family)

COMMON NAME: Ajagandha, Amangura, Amukkirag, Asan, Asana, Asgand, Asgandh, Asgandha, Ashagandha, Ashvagandha, Ashwaganda, Ashwanga, Asoda, Asundha, Asvagandha, Aswagandha, Avarada, Ayurvedic Ginseng, Cerise d'Hiver, Clustered Wintercherry, Ghoda Asoda, Ginseng Ayurvédique, Ginseng Indien, Hayahvaya, Indian Ginseng, Kanaje Hindi, Kuthmithi, Orovale, Peyette, Physalis somnifera, Samm Al Ferakh, Samm Al Rerakh, Sogade-Beru, Strychnos, Turangi-Ghanda, Vajigandha, Winter Cherry, Withania, Withania somnifera.

ETYMOLOGY: ~The species name somnifera means "sleep-inducing"
in Latin.

~The name Ashwagandha is from the Sanskrit language and is a combination of the word ashva, meaning horse, and gandha, meaning smell. The root has a strong aroma that is described as “horse-like.”

HABITAT DISTRIBUTION: The herb is native to the dry regions of India, northern Africa, and the Middle East, but today is also grown in more mild climates, including in the United States. Prefers rich, loose soil, moderate water, full sun.
1) found naturally in dry areas and in waste areas
2) Soil: sandy loam to light red soils
3) Climate required: dry climate having 65-75 cm per annum of rain and temperature of 20-38 C.
4) Altitude: up to 1500 m above sea level

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:# Plant : A much branched, erect, perennial undershrub, from a more or less tuberous root

# Branches: Terete, clothed with mealy, stellate-hoary tomentum, at length some what glabrous.

# Leaves: 5-10×3.6 cm, ovate, obtovate, or oblong, subacute or rarely obtuse, entire, rounded or somewhat produced at base, Pubescent on lower surface and glabrous on upper surface.

# Flowers: in sessile, axillary, 4-6 flowered cymes, greenish-yellow.

# Fruits: Orange-red berry, smooth, more or less globose.

# Seeds: Yellow, somewhat scurfy

# Roots: long, fleshy tubers.

CULTIVATION: Withania somnifera is cultivated in many of the drier regions of India, such as Mandsaur District of Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat,and Rajasthan. It is also found in Nepal.

PATHOLOGY: Withania somnifera is prone to several pests and diseases.

~ Leaf spot disease caused by Alternaria alternata is the most prevalent disease, which is most severe in the plains of Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. Biodeterioration of its pharmaceutically active components during leaf spot disease has been reported.

~ The Choanephora cucurbitarum causes a stem and leaf rot of Withania somnifera.

~ Oxyrachis tarandus, a treehopper, feeds on the apical portions of the stem, making them rough and woody in appearance and brown in colour. The apical leaves are shed and the plant gradually dies..

~ The carmine red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is the most prevalent pest of the plant in India.

CULINARY USE: The berries can be used as a substitute for rennet in cheesemaking.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: The main chemical constituents are alkaloids and steroidal lactones. These include tropine and cuscohygrine. The leaves contain the steroidal lactones, withanolides, notably withaferin A, which was the first to be isolated from the plant.

TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES: ~The plant's long, brown, tuberous roots are used for medicinal purposes.

~In Ayurveda, the berries and leaves are applied externally to tumors, tubercular glands, carbuncles, and ulcers.

~The roots are used to prepare the herbal remedy ashwagandha, which has been traditionally used to treat various symptoms and conditions.

~In two published clinical trials of W. somnifera, the side effects were not significantly different from those experienced by placebo-treated individuals. Ashwagandha exhibits greater clinical benefit than psychotherapy in mental health (anxiety level), concentration, fatigue, social functioning, vitality, and overall quality of life.

~Multiple studies have shown positive effects in reducing physiological and psychological stress as well as restoring and increasing energy levels. More than one study had findings showing a significant improvement in both cardiovascular and respiratory endurance.

~In addition, ashwagandha is also used to enhance sexual potency for both men and women.

~Ashwagandha is used for arthritis, anxiety, trouble sleeping (insomnia), tumors, tuberculosis, asthma, a skin condition marked by white patchiness (leukoderma), bronchitis, backache, fibromyalgia, menstrual problems, hiccups, and chronic liver disease.

~Ashwagandha is also used as an “adaptogen” to help the body cope with daily stress, and as a general tonic.

~Some people also use ashwagandha for improving thinking ability, decreasing pain and swelling (inflammation), and preventing the effects of aging. It is also used for fertility problems in men and women and also to increase sexual desire.

~Ashwagandha is applied to the skin for treating wounds, backache, and one-sided paralysis (hemiplegia).

~In Ayurvedic, Indian, and Unani medicine, ashwagandha is described as “Indian ginseng.” Ashwagandha is also used in traditional African medicine for a variety of ailments.

Don’t confuse ashwagandha with Physalis alkekengi. Both are known as winter cherry.

How does it work?Ashwagandha contains chemicals that might help calm the brain, reduce swelling (inflammation), lower blood pressure, and alter the immune system.

SIDE EFFECTS: ~Ashwagandha is POSSIBLY SAFE when taken by mouth short-term. The long-term safety of ashwagandha is not known. Large doses of ashwagandha might cause stomach upset, diarrhea, and vomiting.

~It’s not known whether it’s safe to apply ashwagandha directly to the skin.

~Special Precautions & Warnings:
Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Do not use ashwagandha if you are pregnant. It is rated LIKELY UNSAFE during pregnancy. There is some evidence that ashwagandha might cause miscarriages. Not enough is known about the use of ashwagandha during breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

~Stomach ulcers: Ashwagandha can irritate the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Don’t use ashwagandha if you have a stomach ulcer.

~“Auto-immune diseases” such as multiple sclerosis (MS), lupus (systemic lupus erythematosus, SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), or other conditions: Ashwagandha might cause the immune system to become more active, and this could increase the symptoms of auto-immune diseases. If you have one of these conditions, it’s best to avoid using ashwagandha.

~Surgery: Ashwagandha may slow down the central nervous system. Healthcare providers worry that anesthesia and other medications during and after surgery might increase this effect. Stop taking ashwagandha at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.

SOURCES:
>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withania_somnifera

>> http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-953-ASHWAGANDHA.aspx?activeIngredientId=953&activeIngredientName=ASHWAGANDHA

>> https://www.chopra.com/ashwagandha

>>https://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2006/jun2006_report_ashwa_01.htm

>>http://en.mr-ginseng.com/ashwagandha/

>>http://happyherbcompany.com/ashwagandha

>>http://www.anniesremedy.com/herb_detail205.php

>>http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/asgandh.html

>>http://withaniasomnifera.com/

>>http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantwxyz/withaniasomnifera.htm

>>http://www.indo-world.com/withania_somnifera_extracts/withania_somnifera_extracts.htm

>>http://essenherb.com/plant7.html

>>http://ayurveda-foryou.com/ayurveda_herb/ashwagandha.html

>>http://www.herbalnet.org/SHRUBS/withania_somni.asp

>>http://www.allayurveda.com/herb_month_august2011.asp

Sonchus oleraceus L. (COMMON SOWTHISTLE)

Sonchus oleraceus L.

Common Sowthistle !!

BOTANICAL NAME: Sonchus oleraceus L.

FAMILY: Asteraceae

ENGLISH NAME: common sowthistle, sow thistle, smooth sow thistle, annual sow thistle, hare's colwort, hare's thistle, milky tassel, swinies

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: It is native to Asia, Australia, and Europe. The Latin name Sonchus refers to the hollow stem, while oleraceus refers to its good taste. The common name sow thistle refers to its attractiveness to swine, and the similarity of the leaf to younger thistle plants. The common name hare's thistle refers to its beneficial effects and attractiveness for hare and rabbits.

HABITAT DISTRIBUTION: Sonchus oleraceus can grow on most soil types. It prefers disturbed areas such as fields, pastures, gardens, roadsides, edges of yards, construction sites, waste areas (Pethybridge, 2005), farmland and recently burned fields (Grubben & Denton, 2004). It grows at altitudes of up to 2650m (Grubben & Denton, 2004). On Inaccessible Island S. oleraceus is recorded to occur on footpaths, landslides, depressions left by shifting boulders, old settlements/cultivations and rivers (Dean et al., 1994).

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE: 1) Native Range: Europe, Asia and northern Africa.

2) Introduced Range: Australia, Brazil, Canada, Falkland Islands, French Southern Territories, Greenland, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Saint Helena, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, United States, Virgin Islands (USA).

CHARACTERISTICS: Prefers full sun, and can tolerate most soil conditions. The flowers are hermaphroditic, and common pollinators include bees and flies. It spreads by seeds being carried by wind or water. This plant is considered an invasive species in many parts of the world, where it is found mostly in disturbed areas.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS: Sonchus oleraceus has hollow stems that exude latex (whitish milk) if damaged. It has a short taproot, and deeply lobed leaves. It can be distinguished from Sonchus asper and Sonchus hydrophilus in that they both have stiff and leathery leaves, mostly smooth achenes (fruit) with ribs that are scabrous (rough to the touch) or with hairs. Sonchus oleraceus however, has soft, thin leaves and wrinkled achenes, with ribs but without hooks.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:
>>Sonchus oleraceus is a dicotyledonous winter annual plant in the family Asteraceae.

>>leaves: It has a rosette morphology that produces all its leaves, followed by a terminal flowering bud. It has two types of mature leaves: rosette leaves grow in circles from a common centre close to the ground; cauline leaves grow on the upper part of the stem (Holm et al., 1977 in Cici et al., 2009). Leaves are thin and soft, measuring up to 35cm long and 12cm wide. Leaves are lanceolate to oblanceolate in shape, hairless and dark green in colour with pale white to purple veins (Pethybridge, 2005; Department of Primary Industries, 2010).

>>Stems are five angled and hollow and dark-green in colour (sometimes have a reddish-purple tinge), and emit a milky sap when cut. Plants can grow to 1m or greater in height (Cici et al., 2009).

>>Flowers are inflorescences (capitula), and are yellow and 5-6mm in diameter. Capitula are borne on stalks at the end of branches. Flowers open from 6am to 11am.

>>The fruit is an achene that is 2.5-4mm long and 1mm wide, compressed and obovoid in shape (Pethybridge, 2005).

>>Achenes have 3-5 ribs and are rugose in texture. Mature seeds have a white feathery pappus (5-8mm long), that collectively form a white puff ball similar to dandelion. A single plant can produce over 8,000 seeds (Chauhan et al., 2005) that are wind dispersed

NUTRITIVE VALUE: >>Green salad with carrot, cucumber, onion, Sonchus oleraceus leaves, and tomato slices.

>>Leaves are eaten as salad greens or cooked like spinach. This is one of the species used in Chinese cuisine as kŭcài. Blanching or boiling removes bitter flavour.

>>Nutritional analysis reveals 30 – 40 mg of vitamin C per 100g, 1.2% protein, 0.3% fat, 2.4% carbohydrate. Leaf dry weight analysis per 100g (likely to vary with growing conditions) shows: 45g Carbohydrate, 28g protein, 22g ash, 5.9g fibre, 4.5g fat; in all, providing 265 calories.
Minerals
Calcium: 1500 mg
Phosphorus: 500 mg
Iron: 45.6 mg
Magnesium: 0 mg
Sodium: 0 mg
Potassium: 0 mg
Zinc: 0 mg;
Vitamins
A: 35 mg
Thiamine (B1): 1.5 mg
Riboflavin (B2): 5 mg
Niacin: 5 mg
B6: 0 mg
C: 60 mg

GENERAL IMPACT: Annual sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus) is a major problem as invaders of many crops, particularly of open vegetable fields. It is particularly problematic in winter crops and in tillage systems throughout southern Australia, South-East Queensland and Northern New South Wales. It uses valuable stored soil moisture during fallow periods, which reduces the yield of future crops (Widderick et al., 1999 in Widderick et al., 2010).

S. oleraceus is also an important alternative host of pests and diseases of crops (CSIRO, 2007). It is a known host of a wide range of viral diseases including watermelon mosaic virus (WMV), pepino mosaic virus (PepMV), tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV). It is the host for the economically significant castor whitefly (Trialeurodes ricini), Bemisia whiteflies, cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera and the nematode Radopholus similis (Grubben & Denton, 2004). It is also likely to be an important host for downy mildew (Bremia lactucae), one of the worst diseases of lettuce which is an important vegetable crop worldwide (Vieira & Barreto, 2006).

USES: >>Sonchus oleraceus may have been used as a food source in the Mediterranean (Leonti et al. 2006).
>>It is also eaten in Africa, both cooked and raw. It is also used to treat a wide variety of infections, diseases and other medicinal uses.
>>A few examples include use as a sedative, a diuretic and to treat salmonella infection, anaemia, wars, eye problems, liver infections, and as a cure for opium addiction (Grubben & Denton, 2004).
>>Other uses include food for poultry, rabbits and fodder for cattle (Grubben & Denton, 2004). It has potential to be used as a trap crop for control of insect populations (Grubben & Denton, 2004).

CONTROL:This plant can often be controlled by mowing, because it does not regrow from root fragments. Attempts at weed control by herbicide, to the neglect of other methods, may have led to proliferation of this species in some environments.

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION:>>Physical Control: Small or isolated populations of Sonchus oleraceus may be manually removed while plants are young, prior to seed set. The taproot must be removed, as resprouting can occur if left in the soil (Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, 2000 in Guertin, 2003). Slashing is often ineffective as flowers continue to be produced (FloraBase, 2010). Minimal tillage of crops is recommended as this will maintain most of the seed bank close to the soil surface, which favours seed germination, enhances emergence and promotes seed decay and predation. If the seedlings are controlled effectively for a 6-12 month period, this type of control should greatly reduce the seed bank (Widderick et al., 2010). Mulching and soil sterilisation methods can complement other management efforts (Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, 2000 in Guertin, 2003).

>>Grazing: Grazing of Sonchus spp. by cattle and sheep effectively suppresses infestations in pastures, and weakens plants allowing other control methods to be more effectively used (Zollinger & Parker, 1999 in Guertin, 2003). They also make excellent feed for livestock.

>>Chemical Control: For control of Sonchus spp. (asper and oleraceus), a pre-emergent herbicide containing isoxaben can be used, herbicidal soaps when the plants are young, or glyphosate when plants are mature. Zollinger and Parker (1999 in Guertin, 2003) recommend 2,4-D, clopyralid, dicamba, glyphosate, and picloram for control of Sonchus spp., while Rice (1992 in Guertin, 2003) 2,4-D, DCPA, diethatyl-ethyl, MCPA, amitrole, atrazine, bromoxynil, chlorsulfuron, dicamba, dichlorprop & 2,4-D, diuron, glyphosate, isoxaben (Snapshot), norflurazon, oryzalin, oxyfluorfen, paraquat, Ornamental Herbicide II, napropamide, simazine and tebuthiuron.

Sonchus oleraceus has developed resistance to chlorsulfuron in southern Queensland and northern New South Wales (Adkins et al. 1997 in Chauhan et al. 2006) atrazine (CSIRO, 2007), and all lettuce (Lactuca sativa) herbicides (University of California Riverside, Undated in Guertin, 2003). A recent study carried out in California also found methyl bromide and alternative fumigants to be ineffective against S. oleraceus (Shrestha et al., 2009). Apparently spot spraying of Lontrel® 10ml/10L with a wetting agent can be used to control the plant, preferably at the rosette stage (FloraBase, 2010).

>>Biological Control: Biological agents are currently being researched as a possibility for managing S. oleraceus and other Sonchus species in Australia (CSIRO, 2007). Sonchus species have previously been the target of biological control in Canada (Peschekn, 1984 in CSIRO, 2007). Preliminary surveys for biological control agents have been made in southern France and northern Europe (Scott & Jourdan, 2005; Peschken, 1984). Currently the rust fungus Miyagia pseudosphaeria and an unidentified eriophyid mite species are two widespread organisms in Australia with potential for control. The CSIRO project will focus on determining the impact of these potential control agents on related native Australian species ( Sonchus hydrophilus and Actites megalocarp and on weedy S. oleraceus and S. asper (CSIRO, 2007).

SOURCES:

# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonchus_oleraceus

# http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1451

# http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=SOOL

# http://www.iewf.org/weedid/Sonchus_oleraceus.htm

# http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/WEEDS/annual_sowthistle.html

# http://www.survivalplantsmemorycourse.com/2013/04/sonchus-oleraceus-sow-thistle/

# http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state&s&ibra=all&card=H73

# http://healingweeds.blogspot.in/2013/03/sow-thistle.html

# http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-medical-uses-of-sonchus-oleraceus.htm

# http://www.naturalmedicinalherbs.net/herbs/s/sonchus-oleraceus=sow-thistle.php

# http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonchus